Table of Contents
Introduction………………………....………………………………………......1
Pathophysiology of Influenza B……………................................... XXXXXXXXXX2
Pharmacological treatments of Influenza B..…………………………………... 3
Patient education considerations…….....……………………………………….4
Conclusion ...……….……………….…………………………………………..5
Reference list…………………………………………………………………….6
1
Influenza B
Introduction
Influenza is a common contagious viral infection that affects the upper respiratory tract
(Healthy WA, XXXXXXXXXXInfluenza B specifically affects humans and it is spread though droplets
when someone coughs, sneezes or talks (Department of Health, XXXXXXXXXXIt usually resolves
after 3-7 days but it can also lead to other sever infections such as pneumonia or acute
espiratory syndrome, particularly in elderly patients. Flu was the 12th leading cause of death
in Australia in 2018, and the numbers of deaths are strongly linked to severity of flu seasons
(Australian Bureau of Statistics, XXXXXXXXXXIn Australia flu season begins in Autumn and
continues to spring each year, summiting during winter (Craft et al., XXXXXXXXXXRespiratory
complications caused by influenza are major public health issue with high mortality each year
approximately 10% of the world population (Lapinscki et al., XXXXXXXXXXPeople of all aged can be
infected by influenza but babies, pregnant women, older people, immunocompromised
patients, and Aboriginal people are at most risk of being afflicted (Department of Health,
2020).
This case study will go in-depth on the pathophysiology of Influenza B, the
pharmacological treatments included and their action of mechanism. It will also discuss the
nurse to patient education considerations when treating a patient with flu. This task will be
achieved by using the best evidence-based sources such as journals, books and credible
government sites from databases ProQuest Central, Google Scholar, CINHAL, and
MEDLINE.
2
Pathophysiology of influenza
Influenza virus enters the host through the oral or nasal cavity and it is first
encountered by the mucus that covers the respiratory epithelium (Iwasaki & Pillai, 2014).
Influenza B only affects humans and it could cause epidemics but not pandemics. The virus
has two surface glycoproteins that allows it to get into the body’s cells. They are called
Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA). Hemagglutinin protein enables the virus to
enter the cell and neuraminidase can facilitate cell-to-cell transmission. Hemagglutinin
protein binds to the sialic acid found on the surface of the epithelial host cell. That process
allows the virus to get in to the cell by endocytosis and viral RNA is released within the
nucleus for viral replication. Replicated virus is released into the extracellular fluid and is
able to infect other cells close by (Craft et al., 2019).
The virus is recognised by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which leads to
secretion of type I interferons, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The innate immune response
plays major role in rapid control of the number of viral infections as well as for adaptive
immune response. First phase of influenza virus infection activates alveolar macrophages and
monocytes which results in pro-inflammatory cytokines response. They limit the viral load
either by phagocytosis of the virus, by phagocytosis of apoptotic infected host cells or by
egulating adaptive immune response (Bahadoran et al., 2016).
The humoral immune system makes antibodies against different influenza antigens,
of which hemagglutinin (HA) specific antibody is the most significant for neutralization of
the virus therefore preventing illness. This is achieved by Hemagglutinin specific antibody
inding to Hemagglutinin protein, thus preventing the virus from attaching to the host cells.
Antibodies against Neuraminidase (NA) supress virus spread by hindering enzyme activity
and by facilitating antibody-dependant-cell-mediated-toxicity (Bahadoran et al., 2016).
3
Inflammation occurs as a process of body’s immune response to the influenza virus
entering the body. The symptoms expressed by a person infected with flu virus are sore
throat, sudden onset of fever, runny nose, cough, fatigue, body ache, nose and throat
congestion (Department of health XXXXXXXXXXDepending where the flu virus is infecting the
person, it can differ what symptoms they’re showing. Fever is when the body temperature is
38 degree Celsius or higher and could last for up to three to four days (Centres of Disease
Control and prevention [CDC], XXXXXXXXXXMedications such as paracetamol, ibuprofen and
naproxen relieve the symptoms of fever and body ache.
Pharmacological treatments
Flu is treatable with medications called “antiviral drugs”. It is recommended for those
who are high at risk of flu complications such as asthma patients, diabetics (gestational), and
heart disease patients to take medications before the flu virus causes other sever
complications such as pneumonia (CDC, XXXXXXXXXXMedication administration or usage should
e implemented with consultation of a doctor as the medication needs to be prescribed. The
viral drugs that are recommended for flu are Oseltamivir phosphate (Tamiflu), Zanamivir
(Relenza), and Peramivir (Rapivab). These medications are Neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors
and they work by preventing the split of sialic acid, inhibiting the release of the virus and
supressing spread of new viral particles to other cells. The most widely used is Oseltamivir
due to its good oral bioavailability (Amarelle et al., 2016).
Vaccines reduce the severity of influenza B virus by working together with the body’s
natural defence and safely develop immunity to the virus. To understand how vaccines work,
it is important to look at how the body’s immune system creates a faster secondary immune
esponse to the same pathogen. After exposure of virus, the immune system remembers about
how to protect the body against disease by keeping certain few T-lymphocytes called
4
memory cells. They quickly go in action when the body has a second exposure to familiar
antigens and is able to get rid of it more efficiently (CDC, XXXXXXXXXXThere are two types of
vaccines that are widely available, live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIV) and inactivated
influenza vaccines (IIV). IIV is administered via injection intramuscularly and it is
ecommended for those who are only older than 6 months of age. LAIV is given via nasal
spray and it is for children older than 2 years old and adults younger than 50 years old (Craft
et al., XXXXXXXXXXInfluenza vaccine creates immunity against the flu virus by stimulating
production of antibodies specific to the disease. Antibodies to NA proteins work by clumping
the viruses on the cell surface and decreasing the number of virus released from infected cells
(Kalarikkal & Jaishankar, XXXXXXXXXXTrivalent flu vaccines have protection against one influenza
B strain and Quadrivlent flu vaccines protect against the same strains as Trivalent and an
additional strain of influenza B. After the flu shot it takes two weeks to build up an immune
esponse against the flu and the effectiveness depends on different factors such age, health
issues, and genetics (Kalarikkal & Jaishankar, 2019).
Patient education considerations
• General hygiene- frequent hand washing before eating or preparing food, after
going to the toilet
• When coughing or sneezing, cover mouth with elbow and perform hand wash
ub antimicrobial gel afterwards
• If person is in contact with influenza infected person, make sure to take the right
measures such as getting tested, and maintaining distance between other people
• Nutrition- make sure to eat healthy and nutritional foods that will help you
ecover quick and drink adequate amount of fluid
5
• Medication- inform patients of the adverse effects of anti-viral drugs and
vaccinations and to report any abnormal reactions immediately
• Teach patients the differences between the types of influenza viruses (A, B, C)
Conclusion
The pathophysiology, pharmacological treatments and nursing education consideration
for influenza B were presented for further understanding of how the virus changes
homeostatic mechanisms of the human body. Pharmacological treatments including anti-viral
drugs and vaccinations are essential parts in treating influenza B. It has been discussed that
existing risk factors such as como
idities, ageing and immunocompromised people are more
likely to develop secondary infections from influenza B and that strict caution should be
taken if infected with the virus.
6
References
New page for your end-text references; 7th APA
format as per the SNM APA guide.
NUM1203 S1 2022: Case study assignment
Complete the topic associated with the first letter of your Surname
XXXXXXXXXXHepatitis B
Regarding your allocated topic, prepare a short fact sheet addressing the following questions:
1) Introduction and overview of the topic to include a definition, Australian incidence data
(who is affected, how many) and known risk factors (age, gender, ethnicity etc.). [250 words]
2) Describe pathophysiology of disorder with an in-depth discussion of underlying immunological mechanisms. What immune cells are involved/affected? How does the pathogen overcome the immune system? How does the infection alter normal homeostatic processes (i.e. pertussis impact on respiratory processes/ Hepatitis impact on liver function)? [550 words]
3) Describe the pharmacological treatments detailing how the medications alter the underlying disease process (i.e., less focus on dosages and regimes and more focus on describing what the drug does and how that resolves the pathophysiology). If appropriate, include vaccinations. [
250 words]
4) What are the key patient education considerations when nursing a patient with this disorder? (Bullet points) [250 words]
5) Conclusion [100 words]
*Extra 100 words not included in suggested word count above will allow for refs and expansion in other areas as you see fit.