Lecture: Hinduism
Philosophical and Metaphysical Origins
The Brahmanic tradition may be
traced back the Vedic age. The
history and precise dating of this
period is controversial. For many
years, most scholars accepted
the Aryan Invasion Theory,
according to which a nomadic
people who called themselves
Aryans invaded the northwestern
Indian subcontinent and conquered
the people of the Indus Valley. The
Aryans developed the Vedic
tradition, an important base for the
later development of Hinduism.
This theory, along with the
identification of the inhabitants of
the Indus Valley or Harappan
civilization, is now contested. Some scholars argued that the Indus
Valley people were the ancestors of the speakers of the Dravidian
languages of south India, and that the Aryan invasion forced them
to move southward.
Some Hindu nationalists, however, assert that the Aryans were
native to India. Much of the controversy rests upon interpretation
of archeological data, and is complicated by the fact that the script
used by the Indus Valley people has not yet been deciphered. Cu
ent research suggests that changes
in Indus Valley sites were
ought about by small-scale migrations over time rather than a violent
Aryan invasion. (Students may wonder whether there is any connection between
the term Aryan, as used here and its usage in Nazi ideology. Aryan is originally a
Sanskrit word. Students who investigate visual representations of Hindu deities
may also notice swastikas; swastika is also a Sanskrit word meaning “well-being.”
These terms as used in
Hinduism have nothing to
do with Nazism.)
While it is difficult to reach
definite answers about this
controversy, we can study the Vedas to learn
more about the early foundations of Sanatana
Dharma. It is important to note that the Vedas
are the foundation of upper-caste Brahmanic
Hinduism, but not necessarily all forms of Sanatana Dharma. The
Vedas are a collection of sacred hymns; the names of the different
portions of the collection may be difficult for students. The
earliest portion is the Samhitas, followed by the Brahmanas, the
Aranyakas, and Upanishads. (The term Veda may apply
specifically to the four samhitas, e.g., the Rig Veda, or the
collected hymns in their entirety.) At the introductory level,
understanding the nature of the Vedic samhitas and the
Upanishads is most important.
The Vedas were initially preserved orally, and their ritual use
depends upon proper oral recitation. According to Hindu
tradition, the Vedas were not composed by humans, but rather were heard by ancient sages or rishis,
and then compiled by Vyasa. The samhitas contain hymns to various devas or deities; the
later Upanishads represent mystical insights and focus on inward self-exploration as means of
knowing Brahman, the all-pervading reality.
It is important not to be confused by different forms of the
word “
ahman.” First, there are the Brahmanas, a portion of
the Vedas (although the terms have been transliterated without
diacriticals, the first “a” in this word is long, as in “father”).
Then, there is
ahman, the all-pervading reality (the first “a” in
this form of the word is short, like the “u” in “butter”). There is
also Brahmin/Brahman (as in “Brahmanic Hinduism”), the
priestly caste.
The rishis who appear in the Upanishads taught that Brahman,
the all-pervading reality, could be known from within as the
subtle self or soul, atman. The Upanishads relate key doctrines
of Sanatana Dharma, such as the concept of a cycle of death and
ebirth
known
as samsara,
in which the
atman is continually reborn according to the
esults of one’s actions, or karma. The rishis
sought to escape this cycle of death and rebirth
and attain moksha, liberation from samsara.
Major Philosophical Systems
The various philosophical systems of Hinduism
share roots in the Vedas as well as direct
personal experience of truth through meditation,
a concern for ethics as necessary to orderly
social life (related to karma), and the belief that
suffering is due to ignorance of the eternal self.
Important philosophical systems include the
dualistic views of Samkhya (which holds that there is an eternally wise,
pure changeless self known as Purusha, and Prakriti, the cause of the
material universe), the monistic position of Advaita Vedanta (which holds
that atman and Brahman are one and that the power of maya makes the
material world seem real), and a variety of forms of yoga. Raja yoga, the
path of mental concentration, incorporates practices known as sadhanas,
and was described in the Yoga Sutras (sutras are terse sayings or
aphorisms). Jnana yoga is the path of rational inquiry. Karma yoga is
the path of right action.
Yoga encompasses many forms of spiritual discipline, all of which seek
self-knowledge. Yogic practice may include regulation of
eathing to increase prana (“
eath”; life energy), various
physical postures (asanas), the use of sacred formulas or
mantras, and/or concentration on a visual form which may
include a yantra (cosmically symbolic linear image) or the
OM symbol. Some forms of yoga focus on controlling the
flow of energy through the chakras (pronounced “chuck-
ah”) or subtle energy centers along the spine. Practitioners
of yoga seek samadhi, union with the Absolute. Various
forms of yoga are geared towards different personality
types, from the active to the rational to the emotional. Most
common is bhakti yoga, the path of devotion to a personal
deity. Throughout the history of Sanatana Dharma, many
haktas or devotees have composed verses expressing their
love and longing for the divine.
Religious Foundations and Theistic Paths
In ancient times, rituals involving fire sacrifice and
ecitation of the Vedas were apparently dominant. The bhakti or devotional approach, however,
gradually came to dominate around 600 CE. It was open to both women
and shudras (manual laborers and artisans), who had been excluded from
direct participation in Vedic ritual. There are three major groupings of
people: Vaishnavites, who worship Vishnu (and deities associated with
him), Saivites, who worship Siva (and deities associated with him), and
Saktas, who worship a goddess. [Fisher’s transliteration style is inconsistent
here; Siva is pronounced “Shiva,” Sakta is pronounced “shakta,” and sakti is
pronounced “shakti.”] While many people have a chosen deity, they may
also worship other deities for various reasons. Many Hindus speak of an
ultimate, genderless form of the deity who encompasses all the functions—
creation, preservation, and destruction—of the specific deities. It is
important to point out to students that the three major groupings do not
constitute hard boundaries; people may worship a variety of gods and
goddesses for various purposes at different points in their lives.
The Sakta tradition
may or may not
include the Vedic
path. The power of
the goddess is
known as sakti. This
feminine power may
manifest in many
forms, from village
goddesses
associated with a
particular locale to the great goddesses of upper class
mythology. Important goddesses include Durga and Kali. The goddess may be fierce or gentle. Her
worship may be linked to nature, especially trees and rivers. Texts called Tantras provide instructions
for worshipping the feminine divine. Sakti is a key concept for the gods as well, for each has a
female consort known as his sakti.
Fisher concludes this section with a discussion of women’s roles within Hinduism; she notes that the
female is highly respected, while at the same time spiritual liberation has traditionally been restricted
to males. Women are linked to and defined by their husbands. In contemporary India, while there
are many examples of highly educated and successful women, there are also cases of sex-selective
abortion (female fetuses aborted because of the high value placed on sons), female infanticide, and
dowry murders.
The god Siva may be represented in a variety of forms, as the lord of
yoga, as husband of the goddess Parvati, and to some Saivites as the
attributeless supreme deity. Siva and his sakti may be
portrayed together as an androgynous figure, and may
also be represented by a lingam within a yoni. Siva’s son
Ganesh (created by Parvati) may be familiar to some
students—he has
an elephant head
and his favor is
sought at the
eginning of any
new venture.
The god Vishnu has been
worshipped since Vedic
times; he is understood to
have appeared in a series of
earthly incarnations, some in
animal form. Two of his most
well-known incarnations are the gods Rama and Krishna
(though Krishna may be revered without reference to
Vishnu). Krishna devotion is especially popular; the
devotee may imagine himself in a close personal
elationship to him, as friend,
other, mother, or
eloved. Also important is Vishnu’s consort Lakshmi,
associated with prosperity.
The Epics and Puranas
Arising after 500 CE, the epics and
Puranas illustrate the trend towards
personal love for a deity. The two
major epics are the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. The epics illustrate
aspects of the theory of yugas or ages,
according to which the cosmos passes
through a series of four ages, with
dharma or moral order gradually
declining in each era. Vishnu therefore
incarnates himself (as an avatar) to
ameliorate the situation. The world is
understood cu
ently to be in the
fourth and most degenerate age,
the Kali Yuga.
The Ramayana, compiled sometime
etween 400 BCE and 200 CE, depicts the duties (i.e. dharma) involved in various kinds of
elationships through its
telling of the story of the
prince Rama, his wife Sita,
and a wider cast of
characters. The story exists
oth in a Sanskrit version
and multiple vernacular oral
and written traditions.
The vast Mahabharata,
composed perhaps
sometime between 4000
BCE and 400 CE, includes
one of the best-known texts
of Hinduism, the Bhagavad-
Gita, which relates a
dialogue between Krishna
and Arjuna at the beginning
of a battle between two sides of a family. The Puranas (traditionally