Cognition
Cognition
Cognition
TENTH
EDITION
Thomas A. Farme
California State University, Fullerton
and
Margaret W. Matlin
SUNY Geneseo
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v
Preface xv
1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1
Chapter Introduction, 1
What Is Cognitive Psychology?, 2
Historical Perspective on the Field, 4
Origins of Cognitive Psychology, 4
Wilhelm Wundt, 4
Early Memory Researchers, 5
William James, 5
Behaviorism, 5
The Gestalt Approach, 6
Frederic Bartlett, 7
Cognitive Revolution, 7
Cognitive Psychology in Present Times, 8
Mind, Brain, and Behavior, 9
Cognitive Science, 9
Artificial Intelligence, 9
Computer Metaphor of the Mind, 10
The Connectionist Approach, 11
Cognitive Neuroscience, 12
Brain Lesions, 13
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan), 13
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 14
Event-Related Potential Technique, 14
Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 15
Textbook Overview, 15
Chapter Preview, 16
Themes in the Book, 17
Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive, 17
Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate, 17
Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative
information, 18
Theme 4: Cognitive processes are inte
elated with one another; they
do not operate in isolation, 18
Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up
and top-down processing, 18
How to Use Your Book Effectively, 18
Chapter Outline, 18
Chapter Introductions, 18
Demonstrations, 19
Individual Differences Focus, 19
Application, 20
Section Summaries, 20
Contents
Contentsvi
End of Chapter Review Questions, 20
Keywords, 20
Keywords List & Glossary, 20
Recommended Readings, 20
Section Summary Points, 21
Chapter Review Questions, 21
Keywords, 22
Recommended Readings, 22
Answer to Demonstration 1.4, 22
2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 23
Chapter Introduction, 23
Overview of Visual Object Recognition, 24
The Visual System, 24
Organization in Visual Perception, 26
Theories of Visual Object Recognition, 27
Feature-Analysis Theory, 27
The Recognition-by-Components Theory, 29
Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition, 30
Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing, 31
Top-Down Processing and Reading, 32
“Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition, 33
Change Blindness, 33
Inattentional Blindness, 35
Specialized Visual Recognition Processes, 36
Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition, 36
Applied Research on Face Recognition, 37
Speech Perception, 39
Characteristics of Speech Perception, 40
Word Boundaries, 40
Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation, 40
Context and Speech Perception, 41
Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception, 41
Theories of Speech Perception, 42
The Special Mechanism Approach, 42
The General Mechanism Approaches, 43
Section Summary Points, 43
Chapter Review Questions, 44
Keywords, 45
Recommended Readings, 45
3 Attention and Consciousness 46
Chapter Introduction, 46
Overview of Attention, 47
Divided Attention, 47
Selective Attention, 48
Dichotic Listening, 48
The Stroop Effect, 49
Visual Search, 51
Eye Movements in Reading, 53
Overview of Eye Movements in Reading, 53
Selective Attention in Reading, 54
Contents vii
Neuroscience of Attention, 55
The Orienting Attention Network, 56
The Executive Attention Network, 56
Theories of Attention, 57
Early Theories of Attention, 57
Feature-Integration Theory, 57
Consciousness, 59
Thought Suppression, 61
Blindsight, 61
Section Summary Points, 62
Chapter Review Questions, 63
Keywords, 64
Recommended Readings, 64
4 Working Memory 65
Chapter Introduction, 65
Classical Research on Short-Term Memory, 66
Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits, 67
The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique, 67
Serial Position Effect, 68
Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory, 69
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Information Processing, 70
The Turn to Working Memory, 71
Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities, 73
Phonological Loop, 74
Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop, 75
Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76
Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76
Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 77
Central Executive, 77
Characteristics of the Central Executive, 77
The Central Executive and Daydreaming, 78
Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive, 78
Recent Views of the Central Executive, 78
Episodic Buffer, 79
Applications of Working Memory, 80
Working Memory and Academic Performance, 80
Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations, 80
Working Memory and Major Depression, 80
Working Memory and ADHD, 81
Working memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder, 82
Summary, 82
Section Summary Points, 82
Chapter Review Questions, 83
Keywords, 84
Recommended Readings, 84
5 Long-Term Memory 85
Chapter Introduction, 85
Overview of Long-Term Memory, 86
Encoding in Long-Term Memory, 87
Levels of Processing, 87
Contentsviii
Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material, 88
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect, 88
Encoding-Specificity Principle, 90
Research on Encoding Specificity, 90
Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity, 91
Retrieval in Long-Term Memory, 92
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks, 92
Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks, 93
Individuals with Amnesia, 94
Autobiographical Memory, 95
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory, 96
Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring, 96
Flashbulb Memories, 97
Eyewitness Testimony, 99
Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony, 99
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect, 99
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony, 101
The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy, 101
Special Topics in Long-Term Memory, 102
Expertise, 102
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise, 102
How Do Experts and Novices Differ?, 102
Own-Ethnicity Bias, 103
Emotions and Memory, 104
The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy, 107
The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy, 107
The Potential for Memory E
ors, 108
Arguments for False Memory, 108
Arguments for Recovered Memory, 109
Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Co
ect, 109
Section Summary Points, 109
Chapter Review Questions, 110
Keywords, 111
Recommended Readings, 111
6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 112
Chapter Introduction, 112
Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by
Memory Concepts, 113
Divided Attention, 113
Working Memory, 113
Levels of Processing, 114
Elaboration, 114
Distinctiveness, 114
Encoding Specificity, 115
Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics, 116
Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice, 116
Distributed Practice Effect, 116
Testing Effect, 116
Test Anxiety, 117
Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization, 118
Imagery, 118
Contents ix
Organization, 119
Prospective Memory, 121
Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory, 121
Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures, 122
Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory, 122
Metamemory, 123
Accuracy of Metamemory, 124
Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy
for Individual Items, 124
Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay, 125
Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy, 126
Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies, 126
Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy, 126
Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult, 127
Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies, 127
Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects, 127
Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect, 127
Feeling of Knowing, 129
Metacomprehension, 129
Metacomprehension Accuracy, 129
Improving Metacomprehension, 130
Section Summary Points, 131
Chapter Review Questions, 132
Keywords, 132
Recommended Readings, 133
Answer to Demonstration 6.4, 133
7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 134
Chapter Introduction, 134
Classical Research on Visual Imagery, 135
Overview of Mental Imagery, 135
Mental Rotation, 136
Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation, 138
Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks, 139
The Imagery Debate, 139
Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures, 140
Individual differences in mental imagery, 142
Summary, 143
Factors That Influence Visual Imagery, 143
Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery, 143
Visual Imagery and Interference, 144
Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes, 145
Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability, 145
Auditory Imagery, 146
Auditory Imagery and Pitch, 147
Auditory Imagery and Tim
e, 147
Cognitive Maps, 148
Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps, 150
Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities, 150
Distance Estimates and Category Membership, 150
Distance Estimates and Landmarks, 151
Cognitive Maps and Shape, 151
Contentsx
Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps, 152
The Rotation Heuristic, 152
The Alignment Heuristic, 153
Creating a Cognitive Map, 154
The Spatial Framework Model, 154
The Situated Cognition Approach, 155
Section Summary Points, 155
Chapter Review Questions, 156
Keywords, 157
Recommended Readings, 157
8 General Knowledge 158
Chapter Introduction, 158
Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory, 159
Background Information, 159
The Prototype Approach, 161
Characteristics of Prototypes, 162
Levels of Categorization, 163
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach, 164
The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory, 164
Comparing the Prototsype and Exemplar Approaches, 166
Network Models of Semantic Memory, 167
Anderson’s ACT-R Approach, 167
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach, 169
Schemas and Scripts, 172
Background on Schemas and Scripts, 173
Schemas and Scripts, 173
Identifying the Script in Advance, 174
Schemas and Memory Selection, 174
Schemas and Boundary Extension, 176
Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 178
The Constructive Approach, 178
The Pragmatic Approach, 179
The Cu
ent Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 179
Schemas and Memory Integration, 179
The Classic Research on Memory Integration, 180
Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes, 180
Section Summary Points, 184
Chapter Review Questions, 184
Keywords, 185
Recommended Readings, 185
Answer to Demonstration 8.1, 186
9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language
Comprehension 187
Chapter Introduction, 187
Overview of Psycholinguistics, 188
Relevant Terminology and Background on Language, 188
Basic Facts About Human Language, 189
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics, 190
Chomsky’s Approach, 190
Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory, 191
Contents xi
Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning, 191
On-line Sentence Comprehension, 192
Negation and the Passive Voice, 192
Syntactic Complexity, 193
Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity, 195
Lexical Ambiguity, 195
Syntactic Ambiguity, 195
Good-Enough Processing, 197
Brain and Language, 198
General Considerations, 198
Aphasia, 199
Revisiting Broca’s Area, 200
Hemispheric Specialization, 201
The Mi
or System, 203
Reading, 203
Comparing Written and Spoken Language, 204
Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches, 205
The Direct-Access Route, 205
The Indirect-Access Route, 205
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children, 206
Discourse Comprehension, 207
Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text, 208
Drawing Inferences During Reading, 209
The Constructionist View of Inferences, 209
Factors That Encourage Inferences, 210
Higher-Level Inferences, 211
Teaching Metacomprehension Skills, 211
Section Summary Points, 212
Chapter Review Questions, 213
Keywords, 213
Recommended Readings, 213
Answer to Demonstration 9.1, 214
10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 215
Chapter Introduction, 215
Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes, 216
Producing a Word, 216
Speech E
ors, 217
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue E
ors, 217
Explanations for Speech E
ors, 217
Producing a Sentence, 218
Producing Discourse, 219
Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication, 219
Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition, 219
The Social Context of Language Production, 222
Common Ground, 222
Directives, 224
Framing,