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Literature review 1. Landfill (Globally, Nationally Australia, State level Queensland) production 2. Engineering landfill (Globally, Nationally Australia, State level Queensland) Standards 3....

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Literature review
1. Landfill (Globally, Nationally Australia, State level Queensland) production
2. Engineering landfill (Globally, Nationally Australia, State level Queensland) Standards
3. Bioreactor    
4. Landfill rehabilitation
5. Landfill capping
· Compact clay layer (Advantages and disadvantages)
· Geosynthetic clay laye
· Geomem
ane cap
6. Phytocapping
· History of Phytocapping (Globally, Nationally Australia, State level Queensland)
· Advantages
· Disadvantages
7. Plant selection
· Common species used in Phytocapping
· Native species used in Phytocapping
· Eucalyptus tereticornis(QLD BLUE GUM)
· Allocasuarina littoralis(Forest Sheoak)
· Acacia concu
ens(Brisbane black wattle)
· Themeda triandra(Kangaroo grass)
8. Pot trail
9. Shear test on soil and root
10. Soil properties of Coal ove
urden (Globally, Nationally Australia, State level Queensland)
11. Conclusion of LR
Answered Same Day Sep 26, 2021 University of Queensland

Solution

Sunabh answered on Oct 26 2021
134 Votes
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW                            1
LITERATURE REVIEW        21
LITERATURE REVIEW
Table of Contents
0. Introduction    4
1. Landfill Production    4
1.1 Global Production    5
1.2 Nationally Australia, State Level Queensland’s Production    6
2. Engineering Landfill Standards    7
2.1 Global Standards    7
2.2 Nationally Australia, State Level Queensland’s Standards    8
3. Bioreactor    9
4. Landfill Rehabilitation    12
5. Landfill Capping    13
5.1 Compact Clay Layer    14
5.2 Geosynthetic Clay Layer    15
5.3 Geo-Mem
ane Cap    16
5.4 Alternative Capping Technologies    17
6. Phytocapping    18
6.1 History of Phytocapping    18
6.1.1 Global History    18
6.1.2 Australian and Queensland’s History    19
6.2 Advantages    19
6.3 Disadvantages    20
6.4 Soil Reinforcement by Phytocapping    20
7. Phytocapping Plant Selection    21
7.1 Plant Selection Criteria used in Phytocapping    21
7.2 Native Species used in Phytocapping in Ipswich    22
7.2.1 Eucalyptus tereticornis (QLD Blue Gum)    22
7.2.2 Allocasuarina littoralis (Forest Sheoak)    23
7.2.3 Acacia concu
ens (Brisbane Black Wattle)    23
7.2.4 Themeda triandra (Kangaroo Grass)    24
8. Pot Trail    25
8.1 Substrate    25
8.2 Plants    26
8.3 Density    26
8.4 Water Balance    27
9. Soil Selection    28
9.1 Soil Properties of Coal Ove
urden    29
9.1.1 Global Data    29
9.1.2 Nationally Australia, State Level Queensland’s Data    30
10. Conclusion    31
References    33
0. Introduction
Waste production and generation has been a major trouble for the nations and it has been considered as another major issue that may require interventions. With increasing, waste generation, process has also received a boost and therefore, management of that waste has emerged as a difficult task. Landfills have been used as a waste disposal method from a very long time.
This is majorly because landfills are a very easy technique when it comes to waste disposal and does not require much effort as well as capital investment. Even after development of significant new techniques and alternative waste management techniques, landfills are still counted as most efficient technique; however, landfills also require significant management in order to handle the amount of waste that is being dumped into it.
This review focuses upon such aspects that reflect global and national trends in landfill production. Along with this, a significant amount of research will be done in order to explain various processes involved in the management of landfills. Further, major focus would be upon the newly introduced technique of phytocapping in Australia along with its advantages and implications.
1. Landfill Production
Landfill is one of the oldest form and technique of waste management that is being used by each nation. Landfill is a site that is used for dumping the waste, ga
age, or it can also be called as a waste disposal site where waste is being disposed of by burial. Simply, the waste material is being accumulated in a pit created in land and when that pit is filled with waste layers of soil is added on top in order to cover it (Qasim, 2017). Waste is decomposed as it is buried under the soil by the action of various aerobic as well as anaerobic microorganisms.
However, Crawford and Smith (2016) suggested that every landfill site has a specific limitation up to which, waste can be filled and after that, it cannot hold anymore waste and therefore, will require closure or covering. Further, due to increasing population and associated waste generation, land required for deposing that waste is being shortened. Therefore, new technologies and advancement in existing landfill technology may be required.
1.1 Global Production
One of the major limitations or advantages of landfill technique are that it can be used only for solid waste disposal. According to the data presented by The World Bank (2019), the rate, at which solid waste is being generated, is increasing every year. In 2016, 2.01 tonnes of solid waste was being generated by world’ cities and that would account to around 0.74 kilogram waster per person per day. Further, the report also presented that with the cu
ent rate, at which solid waste generation is increasing, the levels may reach to 3.40 billion tonnes of solid waste by 2050.
Melikoglu, Lin and We
(2013) further suggested that despite of the implied efforts in form of reduce, reuse and recycle campaigns and many other strategies that may have been implied in order to reduce the waste generation, more and more landfill trash is being generated. Further, they suggested that residents from developing countries and u
an poor countries are mostly impacted by unsustainable waste management. This is majorly because in poor or developing countries, 90% of solid waste is often disposed in an unregulated manner or it being burnt openly.
Srivastava, Ismail, Singh and Singh (2015) mentioned that developing countries such as India has been facing major issues related to health as well as safety and environmental consequences due to open landfills. Likewise, it would be essential to consider that effective waste management process is an expensive process and therefore, u
an and poor countries do not possess enough investment and as a result, they fail to incorporate efficient, socially supported and sustainable systems.
1.2 Nationally Australia, State Level Queensland’s Production
Australia has been reported to emphasise significantly upon the sustainable future of nation and in order to do so; they may have implied numerous strategies. Waste management has been refe
ed to as one of the important aspect dealing with the formation of a sustainable city. Australian Department of Environment and Energy mentioned in their National Waste Report that 48 million tonnes of solid waste is being generated every year in Australia and overall it possesses 1,168 landfills within 8 states (Australian Department of Environment and Energy, 2013).
Further, it was mentioned that landfills receive more than 40% of Australia’s total waste majorly because of the capacity, moderate cost as well as the ability to dispose of mixed waste. Moreover, overall the licenced 1168 of landfill sites receive around 20 million tonnes of waste every year. Further, according to the National Waste Report (2018), presented by Australian government, Australian Capital Te
itory (ACT) has been regarded as one of the leading jurisdictions in Australia with over 70% of waste getting recycled.
Report further mentioned that around 265 landfills are there in Queensland and therefore, it has been ranked second after New South Wales (NSW) with respect to the state with largest number of landfills. According to the data presented by Sunshine Cost Council (2019), around 10.9 million tonnes of waste was being produced in Queensland in 2017-2018 and with most of the waste that is around 55% ended up in landfills. In other words, Queensland alone can be held responsible for the generation of one-fourth of Australia’s solid waste and 55% of which, has to be dumped, into landfills; for a faster and cheaper waste remediation.
2. Engineering Landfill Standards
It is essential to consider that landfill cannot be create anywhere on the land because of numerous reasons such as it requires a very large area of land in order to dug up and then dump waste in to it. Further, is may be required that the location of landfill must be appropriate that is should not be closer to the residential areas otherwise it may cause several health and safety issues. Likewise, it may be required to take permissions as well as approval for the design and construction of landfill as well as even for the expansion of already existing landfills, approval is essential (Gonzalez-Valencia, Magana-Rodriguez, Maldonado, Salinas & Thalasso, 2015).
2.1 Global Standards
According to the International Guidelines for Landfill evaluation (2011), it would be essential to consider that based upon the waste product to be decomposed or buried, landfills can be open, controlled or engineered and sanitary landfills. Controlled or engineered landfills are those that have been modified using technology and equipment’s and therefore, they may be advance then the pre-existing landfills.
There has to be a special regard or ‘aesthetic for the health, safety as well as quality of life’. According to this standard waste should be covered, compacted, should have minimal vegetation and vector control. It should accept some uncovered vehicles, engineered roads, and muddy roads, visual and order impact, erosion channels and muddy conditions, no burning and should be fenced in order to restrict the entry up to only workers.
‘Ground water protection standard’ suggests that the site selected for landfills must have a sand or silt layer at the bottom. Site selection must be within less than 5 meters to groundwater and there should be no liner or leachate collection. Ground water within 1 Kilometre range must not be consumed and long terms exposure must be prevented. However, it should not cause any harm to the normal percolation. Further, the Surface Water Protection Standard suggests that the waste should not contact any surface water.
Runoff from the waste must be channelled however direct to the surface water body. ‘Landfill gas standard’ suggests there should be no gas migration to the depth of groundwater and larger the landfill gas larger will be the site. There should not be any flare and or building near 500 meters’ range of waste. There should be reduced scavenging and site must be fully secured. Rejection of unwanted and hazardous waste is required, liquid waste must be limited because of odour and other safety issues.
2.2 Nationally Australia, State Level Queensland’s Standards
It has been noticed that the Australian Engineering landfill Standards are very much similar to that of the international standards. However, there are certain variations in terms of the social standards related to landfills as well as the environmental standards of the Nation. EPA South Australia (2019) suggested that the development and operations of waste management process must be done in accordance with the principles of Environment Protection Act (EPA) 2013 (USEPA, 2019). Fam et al. (2017) suggested that Clause 12 of Environment protection policy 2010, band landfills to accept any substance or waste that may fall under the list of prohibited or banned substance such as heavy metal waste or even radioactive waste.
Further, EPA policy 2015, considering the general environmental duty in relation to resources such as water and therefore, must prevent them from any harm. Landfills present in Queensland are bound to follow landfill standards decided by Australian Department of Environment and Energy (Australian Department of Environment and Energy, 2018). Where, waste acceptance is for larger waste that may be moderate to high, medium waste that may be moderate while very low amount of small waste is accepted. Resource recovery occurs at all sizes of landfills while the infrastructure for resource recovery may be moderate to low at all landfill sizes. For large and medium sized landfills in Queensland management control for dust litter and odour are very high compared to small sized landfills.
At the large and medium sized landfills, control of vermin that is vector control have been reported to be higher than that of low to moderate and small sized landfills. Likewise, the monitoring practice has been reported to be higher at large and medium sized landfills compared to small sized landfills where monitoring activity is very low. Likewise, the larger landfills have linings while smaller landfills do not have silt or sand lining. Storm water management, leachate collection as well as management for air emissions from the large and medium sized landfill is higher than that of small size landfills in Queensland (Australian Department of Environment and Energy, 2010).
3. Bioreacto
Townsend (2018) suggests that a bioreactor is device that is used majorly to ca
y out the processes of fermentation. This is a vessel or a container that possess numerous inlets as well as outlets from where raw materials can be added while the products can be removed simultaneously. A bioreactor landfill is an advanced as well as a modified technique that is majorly used for the eradication and degradation of liquid waste. According to the United States Environment Protection Agency (2019), a landfill bioreactor is majorly called as a municipal solid waste landfill (MSWFL), in which liquid waste may be added and it is decomposed majorly by the action of bacteria.
Bareither, Benson and Edil (2012) further suggested that in order to maintain a continuous, stable as well as sustained degradation process in a bioreactor there would be requirement of fresh air to be passed on into the closed vessel. Townsend (2018) argued that the air inlets present in these bioreactors makes them different from the ‘dry tomb’ landfill approach that do not possess air inlet. Abdallah and Kennedy (2013) suggested that bioreactors can help to accelerate the process of waste decomposition and can help to stabilise the waste products. Further, these bioreactors can be of 2 types that is Aerobic and Anaerobic, other than this, a third type of bioreactor exists that is known as hy
id bioreactor.
Aerobic Bioreactor – Here the leachate that is percolated water collected from the solid waste is removed from the bottom layer and is piped to liquid storage tanks. This is again circulated into the landfill in a controlled manner (Omar & Rohani, 2015). Within these liquid storage tanks, air is injected through vertical as well as horizontal wells in order to promote aerobic activity and accelerate the process of waste stabilisation.
Anaerobic Bioreactor – Abdallah and Kennedy (2013) mentioned that in an anaerobic bioreactor, moisture is added to the waste mass however, in the form of re-circulated leachate and some of the other sources in order to provide optimal levels of moisture. One of the unique feature of anaerobic bioreactor is the formation of landfill gas. Due to the decomposition by methanogenic bacteria in the absence of oxygen, landfill gas is generated as bi-products. Further, the gas emitted from this is methane and it can cause greenhouse effect if released directly outside into environment. It is also foul smelling. Instead, it is stored and later can be used for energy projects.
Hy
id Bioreactor – This type of bioreactor is possess both aerobic as well as anaerobic functionalities, because of which it has the ability to accelerate the process of waste degradation. This acceleration is done by employing a sequential aerobic as well as anaerobic treatment that can rapidly degrade the organic waste in the upper sections and gas produced is collected at the lower sections. This type of bioreactor has the ability to provide earliest onset of methane production by methanogens compared to other aerobic landfills (EPA, 2019).
    Often there is requirement of moisture content that has to be provided from the outside environment in the form of storm water, wastewater treatment plant, sludge or even leachate. Moisture content can be considered as one of the major criteria as well as controlling factor that controls the process of degradation in a bioreactor (Lin et al., 2013). There are numerous advantages of using bioreactor landfills and these may include speedy decomposition and biological stabilisation of waste compared to that of dry tombs (Hassan & Xie, 2014). Lower toxicity as well as mobility of toxic substances is due to the presence of aerobic as well as anaerobic conditions.
Reduced disposal cost along with a significant increase in LFG generation that can be captured and later used for energy products and this reduced the post closure care (Omar & Rohani, 2015). There can be numerous disadvantages to this technology and that may include the fact that it is new technology and has not been used much therefore, there may be certain hazardous associated with it that are unidentified. Further, Grossule, Morello, Cossu and Lavagnolo (2018) mentioned that gas collection system could be effected due to increased moisture content presence inside the reactor. Likewise, the testing has been done at lab or pilot scale and therefore, there is no specific design, guidelines or operational procedure, which could be followed in order to use these bioreactors.
4. Landfill Rehabilitation
It would be necessary to consider that landfill occupies a very large area and therefore, when it is filled it needs to be covered up and to let the waste decompose by natural activities. However, due to increasing population and increasing land demand, area covered under landfill cannot be left ba
en. Therefore, it was made essential to develop plans, strategies and methods that would promote the use of covered landfalls (Mizerna, Krol & Mroz, 2017). This process was being named as landfill rehabilitation. However, there were several implications as well as restrictions, which were introduced before rehabilitating the landfills.
    Since a lot of toxic as well as non-toxic waste may be dumped into those landfills; therefore, it was made necessary by the EPA to introduce certain limitations as well as guidelines before rehabilitating the landfill site. This was majorly because the waste products if left open would not decompose on their own and therefore closure and rehabilitation was made necessary. However, this has to be done carefully as well as after care of those sites may also be required due to keep a check upon the impacts that may be occu
ing on the su
ounding environment (Gympie Regional Council, 2019).
Ortner, Knapp and Bockreis (2014) mentioned that landfill rehabilitation is very recent concept and therefore can be considered as an approach that allows excavation of landfilled waste and allow utilising the resources contained underneath. Extraction of more valuable fraction such as that of metals can be done as presented in their study. However, there are several major concerns that needs to be addressed such as pollution concerns, recovery, land recycling and post closure activities. Mizerna, Krol and Mroz (2017) further argued based on their study, which reflected that the waste materials upon decomposition and due to percolation of water might leach organic and inorganic substances especially in form of sulphates and other heavy metals.
These have the ability further to penetrate the ground and to enter ground water and ultimately, they will present serious environmental concerns. In order to address this issue, EPA in 2013 introduced ‘closed landfill guideline’ (CL guideline), according to which licencing of all the closed landfills was made necessary (CPEO, 2019). Further, it was also made necessary to perform hydrogeological risk assessment of the closed site as a part of aftercare strategy. Further, under the Environmental protection Act, 1970 several amendments were made, as a result of which the occupier or the owner of land would be held responsible for the continuous and consistent after care of rehabilitated landfill and likewise, any notices would be issued to them only (Kennedy, 2014).
    According to the report presented by Gympie Regional Council (2019), since 2014-2017 there have been 7 rehabilitation programs that have been made successful. Further, for future aspects there are some other sites, such as Southside Waste Management Facility, Gunalda Waste Management Facility and three other landfill sites, where rehabilitation program would be established. Overall, it has been reported to be a $12 million rehabilitation program launched by the government and Gympie Regional Council and Cooloola Shire Council have been held responsible for the collection between 2002 and 2015.
5. Landfill Capping
As mentioned above also that landfills occupy a major amount of land and they may be present in a close proximity to a residential area. Further, the leaching out of organic or inorganic products from the waste can be a serious threat for the environment as well as the communities that may be living in those residential areas. Therefore, there may be requirement of a ba
ier between the land as well as the contaminants in order to prevent the entry of contaminants into the su
ounding environments (Sinnathamby, Phillips, Sivakumar & Paksy, 2014).
Landfill capping is one such technique that is being used in order to form a ba
ier between the contaminants present at the landfills site and shields human from the harmful impacts of those contaminants. Majorly this technique is based upon the principle to restrict the surface water infiltration into the subsurface that may be contaminated with waste material as contact between surface water and waste would allow leaching of harmful and toxic substances into surface water. Survey presented by Suto (2013) suggested a very shocking history of landfills, according to which landfills in past were nothing more than big potholes filled with waste and dirt.
Therefore, these landfills started to cause various issues in from of diseases, odour, contamination of ground water and much more. Landfill capping has now been refe
ed to as a mandatory step in post-closure of a landfill in order to isolate the waste from outside environment especially water through introduction of a ba
ier that may prevent the percolation of water into waste. In order to develop that ba
ier there have been several strategies as well as proposals provided however, only conventional capping methods have been...
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