Requirements
__________________________________________________________
part 1:
continue reading chap1.pdf from previous week module, and finish the following two
questions:
problem 1.4, 1.5 (page 54-55).
1.4: [2] <§1.4> Assume a color display using 8 bits for each of the primary colors (red, green,
lue) per pixel and a frame size of 1280 × 1024.
a. What is the minimum size in bytes of the frame buff er to store a frame?
b. How long would it take, at a minimum, for the frame to be sent over a 100 Mbit/s network?
1.5: [4] <§1.6> Consider three different processors P1, P2, and P3 executing the same
instruction set. P1 has a 3 GHz clock rate and a CPI of 1.5. P2 has a 2.5 GHz clock rate and a CPI
of 1.0. P3 has a 4.0 GHz clock rate and has a CPI of 2.2.
a. Which processor has the highest performance expressed in instructions per second?
. If the processors each execute a program in 10 seconds, find the number of cycles and the
number of instructions.
c. We are trying to reduce the execution time by 30% but this leads to an increase of 20% in
the CPI. What clock rate should we have to get this time reduction?
__________________________________________________________
part 2:
please transform the following assembly language to the 16-bit instruction.
a) ADD r1 3 5
) DIV r2 r1 1
c) MUL r3 r1 r2
d) ADD r2 5 r1
Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface
1
Civilization advances
y extending the
number of important
operations which we
can perform without
thinking about them.
Alfred North Whitehead,
An Introduction to Mathematics, 1911
Computer
Abstractions and
Technology
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Eight Great Ideas in Computer
Architecture 11
1.3 Below Your Program 13
1.4 Under the Covers 16
1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and
Memory 24
Computer Organization and Design. DOI:
© 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http:
dx.doi.org/10.1016/B XXXXXXXXXX00001-1
2013
1.6 Performance 28
1.7 The Power Wall 40
1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to
Multiprocessors 43
1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 46
1.10 Fallacies and Pitfalls 49
1.11 Concluding Remarks 52
1.12 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 54
1.13 Exercises 54
1.1 Introduction
Welcome to this book! We’re delighted to have this opportunity to convey the
excitement of the world of computer systems. Th is is not a dry and dreary fi eld,
where progress is glacial and where new ideas atrophy from neglect. No! Computers
are the product of the incredibly vi
ant information technology industry, all
aspects of which are responsible for almost 10% of the gross national product of
the United States, and whose economy has become dependent in part on the rapid
improvements in information technology promised by Moore’s Law. Th is unusual
industry em
aces innovation at a
eath-taking rate. In the last 30 years, there have
een a number of new computers whose introduction appeared to revolutionize
the computing industry; these revolutions were cut short only because someone
else built an even better computer.
Th is race to innovate has led to unprecedented progress since the inception
of electronic computing in the late 1940s. Had the transportation industry kept
pace with the computer industry, for example, today we could travel from New
York to London in a second for a penny. Take just a moment to contemplate how
such an improvement would change society—living in Tahiti while working in San
Francisco, going to Moscow for an evening at the Bolshoi Ballet—and you can
appreciate the implications of such a change.
4 Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology
Computers have led to a third revolution for civilization, with the information
evolution taking its place alongside the agricultural and the industrial revolutions.
Th e resulting multiplication of humankind’s intellectual strength and reach
naturally has aff ected our everyday lives profoundly and changed the ways in which
the search for new knowledge is ca
ied out. Th ere is now a new vein of scientifi c
investigation, with computational scientists joining theoretical and experimental
scientists in the exploration of new frontiers in astronomy, biology, chemistry, and
physics, among others.
Th e computer revolution continues. Each time the cost of computing improves
y another factor of 10, the opportunities for computers multiply. Applications that
were economically infeasible suddenly become practical. In the recent past, the
following applications were “computer science fi ction.”
■ Computers in automobiles: Until microprocessors improved dramatically
in price and performance in the early 1980s, computer control of cars was
ludicrous. Today, computers reduce pollution, improve fuel effi ciency via
engine controls, and increase safety through blind spot warnings, lane
departure warnings, moving object detection, and air bag infl ation to protect
occupants in a crash.
■ Cell phones: Who would have dreamed that advances in computer
systems would lead to more than half of the planet having mobile phones,
allowing person-to-person communication to almost anyone anywhere in
the world?
■ Human genome project: Th e cost of computer equipment to map and analyze
human DNA sequences was hundreds of millions of dollars. It’s unlikely that
anyone would have considered this project had the computer costs been 10
to 100 times higher, as they would have been 15 to 25 years earlier. Moreover,
costs continue to drop; you will soon be able to acquire your own genome,
allowing medical care to be tailored to you.
■ World Wide Web: Not in existence at the time of the fi rst edition of this book,
the web has transformed our society. For many, the web has replaced li
aries
and newspapers.
■ Search engines: As the content of the web grew in size and in value, fi nding
elevant information became increasingly important. Today, many people
ely on search engines for such a large part of their lives that it would be a
hardship to go without them.
Clearly, advances in this technology now aff ect almost every aspect of our
society. Hardware advances have allowed programmers to create wonderfully
useful soft ware, which explains why computers are omnipresent. Today’s science
fi ction suggests tomo
ow’s killer applications: already on their way are glasses that
augment reality, the cashless society, and cars that can drive themselves.
1.1 Introduction 5
Classes of Computing Applications and Their
Characteristics
Although a common set of hardware technologies (see Sections 1.4 and 1.5) is used
in computers ranging from smart home appliances to cell phones to the largest
supercomputers, these diff erent applications have diff erent design requirements
and employ the core hardware technologies in diff erent ways. Broadly speaking,
computers are used in three diff erent classes of applications.
Personal computers (PCs) are possibly the best known form of computing,
which readers of this book have likely used extensively. Personal computers
emphasize delivery of good performance to single users at low cost and usually
execute third-party soft ware. Th is class of computing drove the evolution of many
computing technologies, which is only about 35 years old!
Servers are the modern form of what were once much larger computers, and
are usually accessed only via a network. Servers are oriented to ca
ying large
workloads, which may consist of either single complex applications—usually a
scientifi c or engineering application—or handling many small jobs, such as would
occur in building a large web server. Th ese applications are usually based on
soft ware from another source (such as a database or simulation system), but are
oft en modifi ed or customized for a particular function. Servers are built from the
same basic technology as desktop computers, but provide for greater computing,
storage, and input/output capacity. In general, servers also place a greater emphasis
on dependability, since a crash is usually more costly than it would be on a single-
user PC.
Servers span the widest range in cost and capability. At the low end, a server
may be little more than a desktop computer without a screen or keyboard and
cost a thousand dollars. Th ese low-end servers are typically used for fi le storage,
small business applications, or simple web serving (see Section XXXXXXXXXXAt the other
extreme are supercomputers, which at the present consist of tens of thousands of
processors and many terabytes of memory, and cost tens to hundreds of millions
of dollars. Supercomputers are usually used for high-end scientifi c and engineering
calculations, such as weather forecasting, oil exploration, protein structure
determination, and other large-scale problems. Although such supercomputers
epresent the peak of computing capability, they represent a relatively small fraction
of the servers and a relatively small fraction of the overall computer market in
terms of total revenue.
Embedded computers are the largest class of computers and span the widest
ange of applications and performance. Embedded computers include the
microprocessors found in your car, the computers in a television set, and the
networks of processors that control a modern airplane or cargo ship. Embedded
computing systems are designed to run one application or one set of related
applications that are normally integrated with the hardware and delivered as a
single system; thus, despite the large number of embedded computers, most users
never really see that they are using a computer!
personal computer
(PC) A computer
designed for use by
an individual, usually
incorporating a graphics
display, a keyboard, and a
mouse.
server A computer
used for running
larger programs for
multiple users, oft en
simultaneously, and
typically accessed only via
a network.
supercomputer A class
of computers with the
highest performance and
cost; they are confi gured
as servers and typically
cost tens to hundreds of
millions of dollars.
terabyte (TB) Originally
1,099,511,627,776
(240) bytes, although
communications and
secondary storage
systems developers
started using the term to
mean 1,000,000,000,000
(1012) bytes. To reduce
confusion, we now use the
term tebibyte (TiB) for
240 bytes, defi ning terabyte
(TB) to mean 1012 bytes.
Figure 1.1 shows the full
ange of decimal and
inary values